The Indispensable Current: The Role of Desire in Virtue and Vice

Summary: Desire, far from being a mere impulse, stands as a fundamental force in human experience, acting as a crucial determinant in the shaping of both virtue and vice. From the philosophical traditions enshrined in the Great Books of the Western World, we learn that desire, when properly understood and directed by the Will, can be a powerful engine for moral excellence and the pursuit of the good life. Conversely, unchecked or misdirected desire can lead to profound moral failings and the erosion of character. This article explores how various philosophical schools have grappled with this complex relationship, illuminating desire's pivotal role in our ethical journey.

The Ancient Lens: Desire's Dual Nature

For the ancient Greeks, desire was not something to be simply suppressed, but rather understood and integrated. They recognized its inherent power, capable of elevating or degrading the human spirit.

Plato's Tripartite Soul and the Charioteer

In Plato's Republic, we find one of the most enduring metaphors for the soul's inner workings: the charioteer and two winged horses.

  • The Charioteer (Reason): Represents the rational part of the soul, responsible for guiding.
  • The Noble Horse (Spirit/Thumos): Represents spiritedness, ambition, and the drive for honor – a desire that can be aligned with reason.
  • The Wild Horse (Appetite/Epithumia): Represents base desires for food, sex, and material possessions – powerful, often unruly desires.

Plato posits that virtue arises when reason, the charioteer, exerts control over both horses, particularly the wild horse of appetite, directing their combined energy towards the good. Vice, conversely, is the result of the wild horse running rampant, overpowering reason and spiriting away the soul from its true purpose. The role of desire here is not merely reactive but formative; it is the raw material that the charioteer of reason must train and direct through the will.

Aristotle's Path to Eudaimonia

Aristotle, in his Nicomachean Ethics, offers a more nuanced view, emphasizing the importance of habituation and the "golden mean." He distinguishes between different types of desires (e.g., appetites, passions, wishes). For Aristotle:

  • Desire (pathos): Is a natural part of human existence. It is neither inherently good nor bad.
  • Virtue: Lies in feeling desires at the right time, in the right way, for the right reasons, and to the right extent. It's about moderation, not absence.
  • Vice: Arises from either an excess or deficiency of desire or emotion. For example, courage (virtue) is the mean between cowardice (deficiency of desire to face danger) and rashness (excess of desire to face danger).

Aristotle underscores the role of practical wisdom (phronesis) and the cultivation of good habits in shaping desires. The will is crucial in consistently choosing the virtuous path until it becomes second nature.

(Image: A classical oil painting from the Renaissance or Baroque period. In the foreground, a figure, perhaps a philosopher or allegorical representation of Reason, stands calmly, eyes gazing upward, holding a bridle or reins firmly. Behind this figure, in a tumultuous background, two powerful horses — one dark and wild, symbolizing unbridled passion, the other lighter but still spirited, representing noble ambition — strain against their bonds, their eyes wide and mouths open as if neighing. The philosopher's stance is one of control and contemplation, suggesting the disciplined will's mastery over inherent desires, both base and elevated, guiding them towards a higher purpose.)

Medieval Reflections: Desire, Grace, and Reason

The advent of Christian philosophy brought new dimensions to the understanding of desire, integrating divine will and the concept of original sin.

Augustine's Loves and the City of God

Saint Augustine, particularly in Confessions and City of God, views desire primarily through the lens of love. For Augustine:

  • Love: Is the fundamental orientation of the soul.
  • Virtue: Is "rightly ordered love," meaning loving God above all else and loving creation in its proper relation to God.
  • Vice: Is "disordered love," where humans love created things more than God, or love themselves excessively (pride), leading to covetousness, lust, and other sins.

The role of desire is paramount, as it determines the ultimate direction of one's life. The will, tainted by original sin, struggles to direct desire towards God without divine grace.

Aquinas on Natural Inclinations and the Will

Thomas Aquinas, drawing heavily on Aristotle, integrates Christian theology with reason in his Summa Theologica. He posits that humans have natural inclinations (desires) towards certain goods: self-preservation, procreation, knowledge, and living in society.

  • Natural Inclinations: These desires are inherently good, as they are part of God's design.
  • Reason and Will: The will is the rational appetite, which chooses among these inclinations based on the guidance of reason.
  • Virtue: Achieved when reason correctly identifies the true good, and the will directs the natural inclinations towards that good in a balanced and proportionate manner.
  • Vice: Occurs when the will chooses a perceived good that is not a true good, or pursues a natural good in an inordinate way, against the dictates of right reason.

Aquinas emphasizes the will's freedom and its capacity, when enlightened by reason and aided by grace, to guide desire towards beatitude.

The Modern Mind: Navigating Desire with Will

The modern era saw philosophers grappling with the tension between human freedom, rational autonomy, and the powerful forces of desire.

Spinoza's Pursuit of Freedom

Baruch Spinoza, in his Ethics, presents a deterministic view where humans are part of nature, governed by its laws.

  • Conatus: The fundamental desire or striving of every being to persevere in its own being.
  • Affects: Emotions or desires (affectus) are modifications of the body and mind that increase or diminish our power of acting.
  • Freedom: Does not lie in overcoming desire, but in understanding its causes through reason. By understanding our affects, we become less enslaved by them and achieve a kind of rational freedom.

For Spinoza, the role of desire is inherent and unavoidable. Virtue is living according to reason, which means acting from an understanding of necessity, thereby increasing one's power and achieving greater joy. Vice stems from being passive to external causes and confused ideas, allowing desires to dictate actions without rational understanding. The will is not a separate faculty but the mind's affirmation of an idea, guided by the clarity of reason.

Kant's Categorical Imperative and Inclinations

Immanuel Kant, in his Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, famously distinguishes between actions done from duty and actions done in accordance with duty, driven by inclination (desire).

  • Moral Worth: An action has true moral worth only if it is performed from duty, out of respect for the moral law, not from inclination.
  • Inclinations (Desires): While natural, desires are contingent and heteronomous (determined by external factors or feelings), and thus cannot be the basis for universal moral principles.
  • The Will: Is the capacity to act according to principles, specifically the moral law. A good will is the only thing good without qualification.

For Kant, the role of desire in virtue is secondary, if not obstructive. Virtue is about the triumph of the rational will over the pull of desires when they conflict with duty. Vice is allowing one's inclinations to override the dictates of the moral law.

The Sovereign Will: Directing the Currents of Desire

Across these diverse philosophical landscapes, a common thread emerges: the will. It is the faculty through which we interact with and respond to our desires. Whether conceived as Plato's charioteer, Aristotle's practical wisdom, Augustine's rightly ordered love, Aquinas's rational appetite, Spinoza's enlightened understanding, or Kant's respect for duty, the will is the essential mechanism that determines the ethical outcome of our desires.

Philosopher Key Concept of Desire Role of Will Virtue/Vice Outcome
Plato Tripartite Soul (Appetite, Spirit) Charioteer (Reason) controls Virtue: Harmony; Vice: Chaos
Aristotle Natural Passions, Appetites Practical Wisdom (Phronesis) for moderation Virtue: Golden Mean; Vice: Excess/Deficiency
Augustine Love (ordered/disordered) Directs love towards God or self Virtue: Rightly ordered love; Vice: Disordered love
Aquinas Natural Inclinations Rational Appetite choosing true good Virtue: Rational pursuit of good; Vice: Inordinate pursuit
Spinoza Conatus, Affects Rational understanding of causes Virtue: Acting from understanding; Vice: Passivity to affects
Kant Inclinations Acting from duty, respect for moral law Virtue: Acting from duty; Vice: Acting from inclination against duty

Ultimately, the journey from desire to virtue or vice is a testament to the power and responsibility of the human will. It is the internal compass that, for better or worse, steers the ship of our lives through the ever-present currents of our deepest longings. To understand desire is to understand a fundamental aspect of human nature; to master it through the will is to embark on the path of true ethical living.

**## 📹 Related Video: ARISTOTLE ON: The Nicomachean Ethics

Video by: The School of Life

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**## 📹 Related Video: KANT ON: What is Enlightenment?

Video by: The School of Life

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