The Unseen Hand: Desire's Profound Role in Shaping Virtue and Vice

By Henry Montgomery

Summary

Desire, often perceived as a mere impulse, stands as a fundamental force in the human psyche, playing a pivotal role in the formation of both virtue and vice. Far from being inherently good or evil, desire's moral valence is determined by its alignment with reason and the guiding force of the Will. This article explores how ancient and modern philosophers from the Great Books of the Western World have grappled with this complex relationship, revealing that the path to a virtuous life lies not in the eradication of desire, but in its cultivation, discipline, and proper direction. Conversely, unchecked or misdirected desires pave the way to moral failings.

The Primal Urge: Understanding Desire's Nature

At its core, desire is a fundamental human experience – a longing, an urge, a reaching out for something perceived as good or necessary. From the simplest biological needs to the most complex intellectual aspirations, desire fuels our actions and shapes our world. Philosophers throughout history have recognized its inescapable presence. Plato, in The Republic, speaks of the appetitive part of the soul, a locus of desires for food, drink, and carnal pleasures. Aristotle, in his Nicomachean Ethics, acknowledges that all actions aim at some good, driven by an underlying desire for eudaimonia, or human flourishing.

It is crucial to understand that desire, in itself, is morally neutral. It is a raw energy, a potentiality. Its transformation into a force for good or ill depends entirely on how it is managed and directed. This is where the Will steps in.

The Ascent to Virtue: Desire Aligned with Reason and Will

The journey towards virtue is largely a process of harmonizing our desires with our rational faculties and strengthening our Will. When desires are guided by reason, they become instruments of moral excellence.

  • Aristotle's Golden Mean: For Aristotle, virtue often lies in a mean between two extremes of desire. Courage, for instance, is the mean between the excessive desire for risk (rashness) and the deficient desire for action (cowardice). The virtuous person desires appropriately – the right amount, at the right time, for the right reasons. This isn't about suppressing desire, but refining it through habituation and practical wisdom (phronesis).
  • Plato's Charioteer: Plato’s famous analogy depicts the soul as a charioteer (reason) guiding two winged horses: one noble (spirited part, aligned with honour and ambition) and one unruly (appetitive part, driven by base desires). Virtue arises when reason is firmly in control, directing the spirited horse to assist in taming the appetitive one, ensuring all desires serve a higher, rational good.
  • The Role of Will: The Will acts as the executive function, the inner governor. It is the faculty that chooses to listen to reason, to resist immediate gratification, and to direct desires towards long-term, morally sound objectives. Without a strong Will, even the most rational understanding of what is good can be overridden by powerful, undisciplined desires. The Stoics, for example, emphasized the Will's power to accept what cannot be changed and to focus on what can be controlled – our judgments and desires.

Virtue, therefore, is not the absence of desire, but the presence of well-ordered desire, disciplined and directed by a resolute Will.

The Descent into Vice: Desire Unchecked and Misdirected

Conversely, the path to vice is often paved by desires that are left unchecked, misdirected, or allowed to dominate reason and Will. When desires operate autonomously, seeking only their own gratification without regard for consequences or moral principles, they lead to moral failings.

  • Disordered Love (Augustine): St. Augustine, in Confessions, speaks profoundly about ordo amoris – the proper ordering of loves. Vice, for Augustine, is often a result of disordered love, loving lesser things (worldly pleasures, power, wealth) more than greater things (God, truth, neighbour). When our desires are directed towards transient goods as if they were ultimate, we fall into sin and misery. The Will here is crucial; it is the faculty that chooses to love rightly or wrongly.
  • Spinoza's Conatus and Affects: Baruch Spinoza, in his Ethics, views desire (cupiditas) as the very essence of man, the striving (conatus) to persevere in one's being. While not inherently negative, Spinoza argues that we are often "in bondage" to our passions or "affects" when we do not understand their causes. Vice arises when our actions are dictated by confused or inadequate ideas, leading us to pursue desires that are ultimately detrimental to our true self-preservation and well-being. Freedom and virtue come from understanding these affects and acting from reason.
  • The Tyranny of Appetite: When the appetitive part of the soul dominates, as Plato warned, the individual becomes a slave to their impulses. Gluttony, lust, greed – these are manifestations of desires that have become tyrannical, overwhelming reason and leading to actions that harm oneself and others. The Will has failed to assert its authority, leaving the individual adrift on a sea of unbridled cravings.

Philosophical Perspectives on Desire, Will, and Morality

The tension between desire, reason, and Will has been a perennial theme in philosophy. Here's how some key thinkers from the Great Books tradition have approached it:

Philosopher Key Concept Role of Desire Role of Will Outcome of Mismanaged Desire
Plato Tripartite Soul (Reason, Spirit, Appetite) Appetitive part: source of bodily needs/pleasures. Reason, guided by Will, should control appetite. Imbalance leads to injustice, tyranny of the appetites.
Aristotle Virtue as a Mean, Habituation, Phronesis Natural impulses that need shaping; aims at "the good." Cultivates habits, chooses the mean, directs desires. Excess or deficiency leads to vice.
St. Augustine Ordo Amoris (Order of Love), Free Will Can be good or bad depending on its object. Directs love towards proper objects (God, true good). "Disordered love" (loving lesser things more) leads to sin.
Spinoza Conatus, Affects, Adequate Ideas Essence of being, striving; can be passive (bondage). Understanding affects, acting from reason (freedom). Bondage to passions, acting from inadequate ideas.
Immanuel Kant Duty vs. Inclination, Good Will Inclinations are contingent, not basis for morality. Acts from duty, determines moral action irrespective of desire. Actions from inclination lack moral worth.

Cultivating Virtuous Desires: A Lifelong Endeavour

The journey to virtue is not about eradicating desire, which is an impossible and perhaps undesirable task, but about educating and disciplining it. It involves:

  1. Self-Awareness: Understanding the nature and intensity of one's own desires.
  2. Rational Deliberation: Using reason to evaluate desires, distinguishing between those that serve our true flourishing and those that lead us astray.
  3. Strengthening the Will: Through consistent practice, making conscious choices to resist harmful desires and pursue beneficial ones, even when difficult. This builds moral character.
  4. Habituation: As Aristotle noted, repeatedly performing virtuous actions eventually makes them easier and more pleasurable, aligning our desires with our moral choices.
  5. Seeking Higher Goods: Directing our deepest longings towards noble ideals – truth, beauty, justice, love – rather than ephemeral pleasures.

The role of desire in virtue and vice is thus foundational. It is the raw material upon which our moral character is forged. Through the judicious application of reason and the unwavering strength of the Will, we can transform our desires from potential pitfalls into powerful allies in the pursuit of a truly virtuous life.

(Image: A classical painting depicting a charioteer, representing reason, expertly guiding two horses—one wild and dark, the other noble and light—across a challenging landscape, symbolizing the soul's struggle to control its desires and passions.)

Video by: The School of Life

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