Unpacking the Definition of a Citizen: A Philosophical Journey

The concept of a citizen is far from static, evolving from the close-knit communities of ancient city-states to the sprawling complexities of modern nation-states. It is a term continually reshaped by philosophical discourse, legal frameworks, and societal needs. This pillar page embarks on a journey through Western thought, particularly drawing from the Great Books of the Western World, to explore the multifaceted definition of a citizen, examining its intricate relationship with the State and the Law. What seems a simple word—citizen—is, in fact, laden with profound implications for individual identity, collective rights, and shared responsibilities within any organized society.

Ancient Foundations: The Citizen in the Polis

To understand the contemporary definition of a citizen, we must first look to its origins in ancient Greece, where the concept was born amidst the vibrant intellectual life of the polis, or city-state. Here, citizenship was not merely a legal status but a way of life, intrinsically linked to active participation in the State.

Aristotle's Pragmatic View: Sharing in Justice and Office

In his seminal work, Politics, Aristotle offers one of the most enduring and pragmatic definitions of a citizen. He famously states, "A citizen is one who shares in the administration of justice and in the holding of office." For Aristotle, true citizenship was characterized by active engagement in the political life of the polis, including voting, serving on juries, and holding public positions. It was not enough to merely reside in the State; one had to actively contribute to its governance and well-being.

However, Aristotle's definition was also exclusive. His conception of a citizen applied only to free-born men, excluding women, slaves, and resident foreigners (metics). The State, in his view, was the natural context for human flourishing, and only those capable of exercising reason and participating in the deliberative processes could be considered full citizens.

Plato's Idealistic Vision: Virtue and the Just State

While Plato did not offer a direct definition of a citizen in the same way Aristotle did, his works, particularly The Republic and Laws, outline an ideal State where each individual's role is meticulously defined for the common good. For Plato, citizenship was tied to one's function within a perfectly just society.

In The Republic, the State is divided into classes: philosopher-kings (rulers), guardians (soldiers), and producers (farmers, artisans). Each class performs its duty, contributing to the harmony and justice of the whole. Citizenship, in this sense, was less about individual rights and more about fulfilling one's prescribed role, guided by civic virtue and rigorous education. The Law was essential for maintaining this order, ensuring that each part of the State functioned correctly.

Feature Plato's View (Idealistic) Aristotle's View (Pragmatic)
Primary Focus Role within a perfectly just State Active participation in governance and justice
Key Attribute Civic virtue, fulfilling one's designated function Ability to share in administration and hold office
Exclusions All non-philosopher rulers, women, slaves, producers Women, slaves, foreigners, manual laborers
Purpose Harmony and justice of the State Flourishing of the citizen through political engagement
Role of Law To enforce the ideal order and maintain societal structure To guide political life and ensure justice for active citizens

(Image: A detailed description of Raphael's "The School of Athens," focusing on the central figures of Plato and Aristotle gesturing upwards and outwards respectively, surrounded by other ancient philosophers. Highlight the intellectual discourse and the foundational ideas they represent regarding the ideal state and human society, which underpin the definition of a citizen.)

Roman Contributions: Law, Empire, and Subjecthood

The Roman experience significantly altered the definition of a citizen. While the Greeks emphasized active political participation, the Romans, with their vast empire, shifted towards a more legalistic understanding. Roman citizenship became a status that conferred specific rights and protections under the Law, rather than necessarily requiring direct involvement in governance.

The development of Roman Law, particularly Jus Civile (civil law applying to Roman citizens) and Jus Gentium (law of nations, applying to all people within the empire), was crucial. Roman citizenship could be acquired by birth, military service, or grant, and it often came with privileges such as the right to vote (though often impractical for those far from Rome), the right to appeal, and protection from certain punishments. Thinkers like Cicero, while emphasizing natural law and the common good in his works like On the Republic, still operated within a system where citizenship was a legal privilege within a vast, centralized State.

The Enlightenment and the Social Contract: Rights and the Modern State

The Enlightenment era brought forth revolutionary ideas that profoundly reshaped the definition of a citizen, moving away from inherited status or limited participation towards concepts rooted in natural rights, individual autonomy, and the social contract. These ideas, articulated by thinkers like Locke and Rousseau, laid the groundwork for modern democratic States.

In his Two Treatises of Government, John Locke argued that individuals possess inherent natural rights—to life, liberty, and property—that pre-exist the State. For Locke, the State is formed through a social contract, where individuals consent to be governed in exchange for the protection of these rights.

The definition of a citizen under Locke's philosophy is thus one who possesses these natural rights and, through consent, agrees to abide by the laws of the State. This consent, however, is conditional. If the State fails to protect these rights or acts tyrannically, citizens retain the right to resist or overthrow it. This concept profoundly influenced the American and French Revolutions, embedding the idea of popular sovereignty and individual rights at the heart of modern citizenship.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau: General Will and Civic Virtue

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in The Social Contract, presented a more radical vision of citizenship. He argued that true freedom is found not in individual autonomy against the State, but in obeying the laws that citizens collectively prescribe for themselves—the "general will."

For Rousseau, a citizen is an active participant in the formation of the general will, which aims at the common good. This requires a high degree of civic virtue, a willingness to prioritize the community over individual interests. The State is legitimate only insofar as it embodies this general will, and citizens are truly free when they are self-governing. Rousseau's definition emphasizes collective sovereignty and the moral transformation of individuals into public-spirited citizens through participation in a just State.

While Thomas Hobbes (in Leviathan) also explored the social contract, his focus was more on the necessity of a powerful, absolute State to prevent chaos. His concept of the individual within the State leaned more towards a "subject" who surrenders extensive liberties for security, rather than an empowered "citizen" with inherent rights in the Lockean or Rousseauvian sense.

Evolving Dimensions of Citizenship: Beyond the Nation-State

In the centuries since the Enlightenment, the definition of a citizen has continued to evolve, particularly with the rise of the nation-State and increasing global interconnectedness.

Rights and Responsibilities

Modern citizenship typically encompasses a broader array of rights:

  • Civil Rights: Freedoms of speech, religion, association, and due process under the law.
  • Political Rights: The right to vote, hold office, and participate in political processes.
  • Social Rights: Rights to education, healthcare, and social security, often guaranteed by the welfare State.

Alongside these rights come responsibilities: obeying the law, paying taxes, serving in defense, and engaging in civic life to ensure the health of the democratic State.

Active vs. Passive Citizenship

The debate over the nature of citizenship often revolves around active versus passive engagement. Is a citizen simply someone who adheres to the law and pays taxes (passive), or must they actively participate in shaping their society, advocating for change, and holding power accountable (active)? Philosophers from Aristotle to Rousseau would strongly lean towards the latter, emphasizing the vital role of active participation in maintaining a vibrant State.

Global Citizenship

In an increasingly interconnected world, the concept of "global citizenship" has emerged. This extends the traditional definition beyond national borders, suggesting that individuals have responsibilities and rights not just within their own State, but also towards humanity as a whole. Rooted in ideas of universal human rights and shared global challenges (like climate change or poverty), global citizenship encourages a broader sense of belonging and ethical responsibility that transcends national law and identity. This concept draws parallels with ancient Stoic philosophy, which advocated for a universal brotherhood of humanity.

The Enduring Quest for a Comprehensive Definition

Ultimately, there is no single, fixed definition of a citizen. It is a dynamic concept, continually shaped by historical context, prevailing political philosophy, and the evolving values of society. From Aristotle's active participant in the polis to Locke's rights-bearing individual consenting to be governed, and Rousseau's self-governing member of the general will, the philosophical journey through the Great Books of the Western World reveals a rich tapestry of ideas.

The definition of a citizen remains a crucial site of philosophical debate, constantly challenging us to consider: What should a citizen be? How should the State relate to its citizens? And what is the fundamental role of law in mediating the complex interplay between individual autonomy and collective belonging? These questions continue to shape our understanding of ourselves and the societies we inhabit.

Resources and Further Exploration

Video by: The School of Life

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Video by: The School of Life

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